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HISTORY OF AIR TRANSPORTATION (IATA - International Air Transport Association).
The IATA, formed in April 1945 in Havana, Cuba, as a successor to the International Air Traffic Association (Hague, Cuba, August 1919) is an association of airlines headquartered in Montreal, Canada.
At its founding, IATA had 57 Members from 31 nations, mostly in Europe and North America. Today it has over 270 Members representing 290 airlines from more than 120 nations around the globe(iata.org).
How to become a Member?
IATA is an open organization that, only companies can qualify for membership. The companies must operate one or more scheduled aviation services and are based in countries that may be members of the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)
There are two types of members at IATA: Active members and associate members.
Active members are airlines that operate regular scheduled flights for passengers, freight and/or mail between the territories of two or more countries (international traffic required).
Associate members are the airline companies that operate domestic flights only.
Organizational structure of IATA?
* Financial Committee (IATA Clearing House): A special bank that maintains unity in the settlement of accounts (credits and debits) between airline companies. Including problems of statistics, insurance and tax.
* CASS (Cargo Account Settlement System): A system provided by IATA for freight data collection, including cargo sales, and settlement of accounts b/n cargo agents and carriers. Both IATA and non-IATA carriers are eligible to participate in the system.
* Enforcement Office: to check whether the IATA members do observe the various rules and agreements, not limited to imposing fines, if it is found that an airline acts contrary to the rules, for example the airline does not calculate excess baggage or applies an incorrect cargo rate. The amount of fines varies from $1,000.00 to over $50,000.00.
Goal of IATA?
To promote safe, scheduled, inexpensive and beneficial air transport,
To help in the development of air commerce and to study all the problems that connect with the above,
To ensure cooperation of the airline companies that directly or indirectly serve the international air transports,
To cooperate with ICAO
The IATA also regulates the shipping of dangerous goods and publishes the globally accepted, IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations manual.
HISTORY OF ICAO
The International Civil Aviation Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations with its headquarters, located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Goals of ICAO?
It codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation
ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation, its infrastructure, flight inspection, prevention of unlawful interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international civil aviation.
ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation.
Core Activities of ICAO?
Its core function is to maintain an administrative and expert bureaucracy vis researching new air transport policies and standardization innovations.
ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY?
The IAEA (est. 29 July 1957) serves as an autonomous intergovernmental organization which is not under the control of UN and has its headquarters in Vienna, Austria.
The IAEA has three main bodies: the Board of Governors, the General Conference, and the Secretariat.
The IAEA exists to pursue the "safe, secure and peaceful uses of nuclear sciences and technology"
ROLE OF AIR NAVIGATION COMMISSION ?
The Air Navigation Commission (ANC) is the technical body within ICAO, that is involved in: The development of international Standards And Recommended Practices.
ICAO also standardizes certain functions for use in the airline industry, such as the Aeronautical Message Handling System (AMHS),
According to ICAO each country should have an accessible Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP), based on standards defined by ICAO, containing information essential to air navigation. Countries are required to update their AIP manuals every 28 days,
ICAO provide definitive regulations, procedures and information for each country about airspace and airports.
ROLE OF GHANA CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY (GCAA)?
History;
The GCAA was established in 1930 as a unit with Public Works Department (PWD); in 1953 GCAA was granted Departmental Status. It became an Authority under PNDC Law 151 from 16th May, 1986. In the year 2004 the GCAA Act was enacted to replace PNDC Law 151.
The Civil Aviation Act, Act 678 of November 2004 provides for the establishment of a Civil Aviation Authority, which will focus on the core functions of Airspace management and Safety Regulations (GCAA) whilst allowing for a different organization to handle Airport development and operations(GACL).
Organizational Anatomy;
GCAA is restructured into two bodies, that is, the new Ghana Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) and the Ghana Airports Company Limited (GACL) on 1st January, 2007.
Core Purpose;
The Ghana Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) is an autonomous statutory government agency that serves as the regulatory agency for air transportation within the country.
It also provides air navigation services within the Accra Flight Information Region (FIR), (airspace over the Republic of Ghana, Togo and Benin and a large area over the Atlantic Ocean in the Gulf of Guinea).
Ancillary Functions of GCAA;
Licensing and Certification of Air Transport Operators
Controls all flights within the country
Provision of Air Navigation Services (Air Space Management) within the Accra Flight Information Region (FIR).
Regulation of Air Transport Services.
Promoting the Development of Civil Air Transport Industry in Ghana.
Advising Government on all matters Concerning Civil Aviation, among other functions.
Provision of oversight for all activities related to civil aviation.
ESTABLISHED SECURITY MEASURES AT THE AIRPORT AND BY IATA?
Known Shipper Program:
This is principal means for pre-screening or profiling cargo which came about in the mid-1990s after, congress and industry experts recognized that; the need for Aircraft, air-cargo and passenger's safety could be achieved only through a comprehensive inspection program encompassing all components of the air cargo network.
Key concerns included the need for increased compliance with guidelines for the shipment of hazardous materials and to deter terrorists from using cargo as a means to place explosives devices on aircraft.
NB: Since freight forwarders do not operate aircraft, but broker air cargo services, they are referred to in regulation as indirect air carriers (IACs).
Cargo and Passenger Screening eg. TSA (Transport Security System Authority):
Travelers (with or without luggages) and cargo are screened by metal detectors and/or millimeter wave scanners.
Tamper-evident and Tamper-resistance packaging (Supply Chain Security Measures)
Parcel Tracking: Example; bar code scanning, global positioning system (GPS) and radio-frequency identification to process, sort, and track shipments, and could identify suspicious origins or unexplained delays or detours in transit.
REASON FOR TSA ENFORCEMENT?
The world's first terrorist attack while in flight, when Cubana Flight 455 airliner flying from Barbados to Jamaica was destroyed by two time bombs, killing 73 people on October 6, 1976.
Failure of airport security to detect an onboard bomb was Air India Flight 182 in 1985, which killed 329 people.
Another onboard bomb that slipped through airport security was the one on Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988, which killed 270 people; 259 on the plane, and 11 residents of Lockerbie, Scotland.
As measure to deter above terrorism, Air cargo operators and freight forwarders in the United States and at overseas locations that handle U.S.-bound shipments must apply TSA-approved security programs. Broadly, these programs are necessary for:
Access to control measures, site surveillance and physical security,
Mandatory background checks and security threat assessments of air cargo workers, and employee security training and awareness:
Example of TSA's-Approved Security Programs
TSA’s All-Cargo/Aircraft Operator Standard Security Program, for aircraft weighing roughly 100,000 pounds (45,000 kg) or more, such as FedEx, UPS, and operators of large freight aircraft.
TSA's Twelve-Five Standard Security Program, for cargo shipments aboard aircraft that are larger than 12,500 pounds but less than roughly 100,000 pounds.
Indirect Air Carrier Standard Security Program (IACSSP), for domestic freight forwarders.
Also, shippers, third-party logistics companies, and independent air cargo consolidation and screening facilities, may voluntarily participate in the Certified Cargo Screening Program (CCSP).
IATA CARGO AGENCY PROGRAM
For a forwarding company to effectively engage in the air freight business, it should first practically register at IATA to become a registered IATA Cargo Agent.
The forwarding company usually must meet certain conditions regarding personnel, financial stand, office size, location, clientele, turnover and solvency.
Cargo Agency Program
Responsible for the establishment of rules which regulate the standards of business practice between IATA registered Cargo Agents and IATA member airlines. These rules also set forth the rights and obligations of both parties.
An agent must further be appointed as a registered agent by individual airlines that regard the agent’s business activities as being of value to them.
The airlines then will deliver a set of pre-numbered and assigned blank Air Waybills, to the agent for their exclusive use.
The IATA member airlines therefore determine which forwarders qualify to sell carriage by IATA and can terminate appointments any time. Aggrieved agent may seek recourse with the Agency Commissioner.
Cargo Agency Conference
The CAC deals with relationships between airlines and sales intermediaries involved with the selling and processing of international air cargo. It aims at enhancing commercial success for both airline and agent.
The subgroups of the CAC include: Cargo Procedures Conferences Management Group (CPCMG), CASS Policy Group (CPG), IATA/FIATA Consultative Council (IFCC) etc.
Air Cargo Consolidation
A forwarder whose business is to combine air cargo shipments from different senders is called a consolidator.
Air cargo consolidation is the practice of combining shipments from multiple consignees into one shipment. All shipments will be listed under the same master way bill, but each individual shipment will also have a house way bill to help keep the cargo organized. This freight forwarding method is ideal for anyone who does not have a large enough order to fill a plane on their own and wants to save on the cost of shipping.
Possible Drawback
Consolidation can have the drawback that the total transport time from home to home is longer.
It also increases the costs at the destination because of the transfer costs and the break-bulk fee, i.e. to undo the consolidation.
Advantages of Consolidation to Senders
Lower freight costs for the airlines;
Transport of more cargo in fewer shipments and consequently lower handling costs, administration costs etc.
Efficiency: Consolidated shipping makes sense to both shippers and airlines, as it is more cost-effective to fly a plane with a full cargo load than to fly one with only a partial load.
Lower Cost: Because freight consolidation is more less expensive than charter services.
Fast: Cargo consolidation substantially faster than shipping your goods by ocean. If you need to have a relatively quick turnaround from the time you place an order to the time your shipment arrives at its destination, you should opt to transport your cargo by air.
Liability of the Consolidator
A consolidator however, assumes the position of a shipper as opposed to the air carrier and as a result, the consolidator becomes a party to the transport contract with the carrier (as evidenced by the IATA air waybill from the airline). Therefore, the consolidator bears the responsibility to pay tariff to the carrier, and to fulfil all other duties as may duly arise from the contractual relationship, which is usually undertaken by the real shipper.
On the other hand, to the real shipper the consolidator acts as a carrier. Hence the consolidator assumes the responsibility and liability as a carrier in the contractual relationship with the shipper (as evidenced by the house air waybill from the consolidator).
Air Cargo Agency Operations (step by step)
Take orders from customers and arrange pickup of freight and cargo for delivery to loading platform.
Agents ensure that shipments are picked up and delivered on time, paperwork is completed, and fees and charges paid
Prepare and examine bills of lading to determine shipping charges and tariffs
Air Cargo Agency Operations Determine shipping methods and routes from pick-up location to final destinatio
Advise clients on transportation and payment option
Coordinate transportation and logistics details with shipping and freight companie
Estimate, negotiate, and determine postal rates, shipment costs, and other charge
Notify clients of cargo shipments, status en route, and time of deliver
Prepare bills of lading, invoices, and other required shipping document
Record information such as cargo amount, weight, dimensions, and time of shipmen
Trace lost shipments as necessar
IATA CARGO HANDLING MANUAL (ICHM)
The IATA Cargo Handling Manual (ICHM) is a complete set of standards for everyone involved in cargo operations. The ICHM helps airlines and cargo handlers to operate more effectively together, to improve efficiency and safety in air cargo operations
The ICHM enables:
Cargo handling agents to follow clear standards
Airlines to easily adopt industry standards
Freight forwarders and shippers to understand their responsibilities in ensuring cargo operations are carried out seamlessly
Streamlined and aligned cargo handling procedures and best practices in one place.
Liability Compensation Formula and Limitation
The original Warsaw Convention limited liability to 250 French gold Francs per kilogram.
The Montreal Protocol to the Warsaw Convention set the limitation at 17 Special Drawing Rights (SDRs).
However, on December 30, 2009, the limitation of liability for cargo that is lost or damaged during international air transportation between countries who are signatories to the Montreal Convention increased from 17 SDRs to 19 SDRs per kilogram, based on the weight of the package lost or damaged.
As of January 28, 2010, the value of one SDR was $1.55419, thus increasing the limitation of liability from $26.42 per kilogram to $29.53 per kilogram
Liability of the Carrier
What is the carrier liable for? The carrier is liable for loss or damage to the cargo if the loss or damage took place during the carriage by air. Carrier defenses to liability are:
(1) inherent defect, quality or vice of that cargo;
(2) defective packing of that cargo performed by a person other than the carrier or its servants or agents;
(3) an account t of war or an armed conflict;
(4) an act of public authority carried out in connection with the entry, exit or transit of the cargo.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LOCAL AND AN INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
Local Airport
Handles only domestic flights or flights within the same country.
Do not have customs and immigration facilities.
Incapable of handling flights to or from a foreign airport.
Normally have short runways which are sufficient to handle short/medium haul aircraft and regional air traffic.
International Airports
Any airport where flights from other countries land and/or take off.
Usually larger, and often feature longer runways and facilities to accommodate the large aircraft commonly used for international or intercontinental travel.
International airports often host domestic flights in addition to international flights
Also serve as "hubs", or places where non-direct flights may land and cargoes may switch planes.
Often have many airlines represented, and many of these are often foreign.
NB: World top 5 Cargo Hub Airports are as following ;
Memphis International Airport (home to the FedEx Express)
Hong Kong International Airport
Shanghai International Airport
Anchorage International Airport
Louisville International Airport
Rules of Airport City codes
Most cities Airport are represented by the first 3 letters of the city's name (Athens, Mexico, Rio De Jenario, Duesseldorf etc).
There are situations where only one or two letters of the city's name are represented in the Airport code (Los Angeles-Lax, Abu Dhabi-AUH).
There are cases where several place names start with the same three letters, or that two places in different countries may have the same name. E.g. Barcelona is Spain (BCN), Barcelona in Venezuela (BLA).
All places in Canada have 3-letter codes starting with Y (Quebeg-YGB and Toronto - YYZ)
The Traffic Conferences
Traffic Conference Area 1(TC1)
North America (Canada, Greenland, Mexico, St. Pierre & Miquelon, USA including Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico)
US Territories (American Samoa, Johnston Atoll, Swains Is., Baker Is., Kingman Reef, Palmyra Is., Guam.)
Caribbean (Anguilla, Dominican Republic, Netherlands, Antilles, Antigua and Bermuda).
Central America (Honduras, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua).
South America (Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil) .
Traffic Conference Area 2 (TC2)
Antarctica (Europe (Albania, Germany, Norway, Algeria, Lithuania, Spain, Croatia, Luxembourg, Sweden, Cyprus, raine, Finland, Montenegro, United Kingdom, France, Morocco, Georgia, Netherlands.
Middle East (Bahrain, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Kuwait, Sudan, Iran Oman, Israel, Qatar, Yeme).
Africa (Eastern Africa, Central Africa, South Western Africa, Western Africa).
Indian Ocean Islands (Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius,)
Traffic Conference Area 3 (TC2)
Asia, South Asia (Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh),
South East Asia - Philippines, China, Russia (in Asia), Chinese Taipei (Taiwan), Malaysia, Singapore, Guam, Micronesia, Thailand, Kazakhstan, Viet Nam, Japan, Korea
South West Pacific - Solomon Is, Australia, Tonga, Cook Islands, New Zealand, Tuvalu, Fiji,
Question: What are time zones?
Ans: A time zone is a region of the globe that observes a uniform standard time for legal, commercial, and social purposes.
Popular Aiports
Pu Dong Airport To Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport
PVG - TPE → 1 Hour 40 Minutes
Charles De Gaulle Airport To Arlanda Airport
CDG - ARN → 2 Hours 25 Minutes
Denver International Airport To Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport
DEN - DTW → 2 Hours 38 Minutes
Popular Cities
Zurich, Switzerland To Stockholm, Sweden
2 Hours 20 Minutes
Denver, United States To Las Vegas, United States
1 Hour 51 Minutes
Minneapolis, United States To Las Vegas, United States
3 Hours 19 Minutes
HUB AND SPOKE MODEL APPLICATION IN AIR TRANSPORTATION
The hub-and-spoke system became the norm for most major airlines after the U.S. federal government deregulated the airlines in 1978.
Airlines operate out of a centralized hub and use regional airports as the spokes from which they offer flights. The smaller regional airports (the "spokes") transport passengers to one of the larger centralized hub airports. From there, a connecting flight can take them to another regional airport.
Example; Delta Airlines, which has its hub at Hartsfield Atlanta International Airport, and routes passengers and cargo from Charleston, SC, through Atlanta to Memphis via connecting flight.
Merits
More efficient than having numerous direct routes.
Saves airlines in operation costs.
Demerits
Congestion at centralized hub airports
Experiences of delayed flights and increased transit times, as passengers switch flights.
IMPACTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON FLYING
WEATHER
Weather is one of the major cause and explicit factor of aviation accidents and incidents as aviation is highly weather dependent. Poor visibility arising from bad weather conditions may increase the possibility of pilot errors and collision with terrain or with other aircraft. Unsuitable weather conditions (thunderstorms, lightning, hail, icing, wind shear, heavy precipitation, heavy rain, low cloud etc) in induces rough flights, capable of making it difficult for a pilot to take a decision, delay flights, may cause serious discomfort and even injury (Mahapatra and Zrnic, 1991).
Additionally, icing is very dangerous during flight because structural icing on wings and control surfaces, increases aircraft weight, degrades lift, generates false instrument readings, and compromises control of the aircraft.
The presence of ice and snow on the runway reduces the available tire– pavement friction needed for retardation and directional control of aircraft.
Rain causes visibility problems and one of the major problems of heavy rain is the combustion of aircraft engines.
GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS
It is very difficult and costly for an aircraft to operate on plateaus which have low pressure, complex climate and rough topography (Shanhua and Xueqing, 2007).
Weather change in mountains is very quickly. Flight conditions in mountains will be better in the morning and in afternoon more cloud can build-up and stronger winds.
It is very important for pilot to understand the major airflow patterns while flying at mountainous areas.
During preflight, planning charts should be carefully read by the pilot’s to know the steepness of the glaciers and mountains
NATURAL CALAMITIES
Natural disasters have bad impact on aircraft flights and airport infrastructure. Volcanic eruptions and earthquake are natural calamities that affect the airplanes.
Volcano injects large amounts of very small rock fragments known as volcanic ASH which is an aviation safety hazard. Volcanic ash can damage airplane body and engine parts (cockpit and forward cabin windows, landing light covers, leading edges of wings and tail rudder, engine cowlings, and the radar nose cone).
GUIDES IN AIR TRANSPORTATION
Official Aviation Guide - An air travel intelligence company based in UK which maintains a flight status and day-of-travel database in the aviation market and provides provides analytical tools to assess air travel trends for more than 900 airlines and 4000 airports.
ABC World Airways Guide - Contains maps and tips for traveller's.
The Perishable Cargo Regulations Manual An essential reference guide for all parties involved in the packaging and handling of temperature-sensitive products.
Live Animals Regulations - Global standard and the essential guide to transporting animals by air in a safe, humane and in a cost-effective manner.
AIRCRAFT TYPES AND THEIR CARGO CARRYING CAPACITIES
Passenger aircraft (cargo capacity approx. 25,000kg)
Air cargo on a passenger aircraft is transported in the belly of the aircraft, which is located below the passenger cabin.
The belly is accessible from the outside by means of a loading hatch. Lighting, heating and air conditioning are provided, so live animals can be transported as well.
The belly must firstly accommodate the passengers' baggage and airmail. The remaining space is available for the air cargo.
Cargo plane/full freighter (cargo capacity approx. 110,000kg)
In cargo planes, the freight is also loaded in the belly, but mainly in the cabin.
These planes are fitted with a reinforced floor and wide doors,and most a pallet system. First, the cargo is loaded on pallets in the warehouse and tied down with nets and belting. Then these loaded pallets are lifted to the cabin by a high loader, pushed further into the cabin on rollers (which are fitted in the cabin) and stowed in place.. EXAMPLES - Boeing 747, DC-10 and Airbus A310.
Combi plane (cargo capacity approx. 50,000kg)
Combined passenger and cargo plane (Boeing B747M = Cargo loaded in belly and part of cabin).
NB: Loading capacity means the maximum amount of cargo the aircraft is destined to carry on board. It is usually defined in the unit of kg/m3 (volumetric weight).
Examples of Non-palletised aircraft and their loading capacity.
Fokker Friendship F2, 400 kg / 2m3
Fokker Fellowship F2, 400 kg / 2m3
Boeing 707, 10,000 kg / 33m3
Examples of palletised aircraft and their loading capacity
Airbus A310l PAX 215, 10,500 kg / 50m3
DC10-30 PAX 248, 17,800 kg / 60m3
B 747 - 200 PAX 387 20,300 kg / 75m3
IATA UNIT LOADING DEVICE (ULD)
An IATA ULD is a loading unit approved and registered by IATA on or in which cargo can be transported.
The IATA ULD is further divided into two types:
Carrier's ULD -property of the airline;
Shipper’s ULD - property of the shipper.
If a ULD forms an actual part of the aircraft equipment, it is called an aircraft ULD. Examples; Aircraft pallet, net, igloo and/or container
Non-aircraft ULD is a ULD which does not meet the requirements of an aircraft ULD, e.g . basket,
LOADING CULTURE
Loading should be in full accordance with the generally applicable regulations (aircraft load and trim sheet for cargo distribution) and limitations, the operators loading procedures and in accordance with the instructions given by the person with overall responsibility for the loading process for a particular flight.
Weight or distribution between holds will be specified on the Loading Instruction Form (LIF).
Netting is used to restrain bulk loaded loose baggage items within holds so that they do not move in flight. Any load that shifts in flight will move the aircraft’s centre of gravity and can cause control difficulties (in extreme cases causing loss of control).
Principal Hold Loading Risks
The principal risks associated with loading of aircraft holds are as follows:
Holds are not loaded by the loading crew in accordance with the Loading Instructions provided - and the Load Instruction/Report Form is not amended to reflect these changes.
The load is not secured or restrained appropriately.
Unauthorised items are loaded (e.g. dangerous goods).
Aircraft structure (or propeller blades if applicable) is damaged or weakened by unintended impact from mechanised loading equipment.
Consequences of Mis-loading
Loss of Control in flight
Runway Excursion during take off or landing
Aircraft Hold Damage during flight
AIR CARGO HANDLING/PACKAGING
Air Freight Packaging Requirements;
Shipments must be properly packed to withstand stress by impact or vibration in order to ensure damage-free transportation with ordinary care in handling.
The proper packaging of goods for transportation requires a good understanding of the product, packaging material and distribution environment.
Pre-Shipment Testing - Package performance tests to verify your air freight package can withstand the normal rigors of transportation and protect the product, bearing in mind that shock, compression, vibration and atmospheric conditioning can all have very different effects on your packaged product.
Tamper Proof Packaging – securing the package to avoid easy entry of foreign materials and access to the product.
QUESTION AND SOLUTION :
HOW TO ENSURE OPTIMUM PACKAGING IN AIR TRANSPORTATION
Some very basic points to be considered are
Wobbly content : the content of the packaging can move freely, when the shipment is moved (tilted, pushed, shaken etc.).
Solution: provide additional stuffing/dunnage to prevent the freight from moving.
Thrust Shock: Any shock from outside (e.g. a hit/ a thrust) can damage the content. If the shipment is “thrown” , the landing can cause damage.
Solution: Just as in wobbly content, provide additional dunnage.
Projection : A carton on a pallet with the edges of the carton as overhang.
Solution: use a bigger pallet.
Exposed freight: uncovered freight on a pallet. An easy case for potential damage.
Solutions: Shrink-wrap alone will not help. Either use a overlapping carton with enough dunnage inside.
Sharp edges : Pallets may have short edges.
Solution: file the sharp edges
It is your responsibility to use a packaging that is well insulated to avoid any temperature influenced damage. If the content is to be protected from frost, an extra label to the effect should be affixed to the outside of the shipment
Waterproofing is necessary if the content can be damaged by moisture or by water.
Dangerous goods packaging must be fully compliant to the standards set by the IATA. The current copy of the Dangerous Goods Regulation should be available for reference.
Always use sturdy materials. As mentioned above the shipment will be subjected to stress and the packaging must be able to withstand almost all of them.
If cartons are used, see that the flaps at the bottom are secured by adhesive tape. The inside floor should be reinforced by a protective board or shock absorbent material layer.
Question: What is Oversize Air Freight?
Ans: Any freight or cargo that will not fit in the standard air freight container (unit loading device).
AIRCRAFT TERMINAL AND CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENTS
They include: cargo loading and Unloading equipments, potable water storage, lavatory waste tank drainage, aircraft refueling, engine and fuselage examination etc.
Powered equipment
Refuelers vehicles , Tugs and tractors, fork lifts, Passenger boarding steps/stairs, Container loader, De/anti-icing vehicles, Aircraft rescue and firefighting, Potable water trucks etc.
Non-powered equipment
Pallets, Racks, Unit Loading Devices, Dollies, Aircraft Jack lifts, and Chocks.
The Cargo Terminal Serves Four Principal Functions:
Conversion (break down and buildup of cargo pallets and ULDs),
Sorting, (arranging ULDs and cargoes by airline, destination, and flights),
Storage (on a short term basis), and
Facilitation (customs, etc.) and documentation.
Typical air cargo handling methods range from very manual and labor intensive to highly automated and depend largely on the volume and speed of cargo handling required at each airport.
Cargo Booking and General Sales Agent
The process of requesting for the reservation (buying) of space on a flight via an airline's own sales team or appointed local sales team.
A general sales agent (GSA) is a sales representative for an airline in a specific country or region. Typically, the GSA is responsible for selling cargo space. A GSA will typically sell products from multiple airlines.
Airlines normally use a GSA in areas that it does not operate to or from, allowing them to have a sales presence in a country at lower cost than opening their own offices in short term. It may also use their services because the GSA has historical ties with travel and cargo agents which will be too time-consuming for the airline to build itself.
The GSA receives a commission of around 3–5% on all tickets and unit of cargo space sold in the region that it represents.
Shippers Letter of Instruction (SLI)
Shipper’s Letter of Instruction is a document, which provides shipping instructions to the shipper’s freight forwarder to ensure accurate and correct movement of their products across borders.
Often this document will include billing terms regarding the freight and other charges as well as documentation preparation, instructions in cases where the shipper is not providing those documents. In some cases product distribution instructions are also included.
HANDLING OF HUMAN REMAIN IN AIR TRANSPORTATION
If a person dies in a country other than his own, there are no global rules or guidance that dictates the manner in which his remains could be transported back to his country.
However,
The International Air Transport Association IATA has clear, cogent guidance on the carriage by air of human remains.
In its Airport Handling Manual (AHM) IATA prescribes that for special cargo, such as valuable cargo, perishables, vulnerable cargo, and human remains; all personnel concerned shall be made fully aware of the nature and handling requirements of such shipments.
The IATA Ground Operations Manual (IGOM) provides that human remains should be carried in an aircraft only if accepted by the operating airline for transport.
Documentation from the funeral home is not sufficient to carry a crematory container through security and onto a plane without screening. You may transport the urn as checked baggage provided that it is successfully screened for explosive materials/devices. Also, the crematory container should be made of a lighter weight material such as wood or plastic that can be successfully X-rayed.
IATA in AHM 333 states that, should a body fluid leakage occur while transporting dead bodies, the usual accepted guidelines endorsed by WHO for dealing with spilled body fluids should be followed.
The crated coffin should usually be loaded according to chapter 2.4.2., and it must be lashed on a pallet.
SHIPPING OF VALUABLE GOODS
To provide adequate security, special handling procedures are required for valuable cargo. Information on value, contents, routing and/or storage must be kept strictly confidential; fom the time of acceptance until delivery to the consignee.
Shipments of valuable cargo shall principally be stowed in valuable-cargo pouches with attached seal.
LOADING OF PERISHABLE GOODS
Perishable cargo shall be accepted for carriage only if properly packed in order to avoid damage and/or contamination to other loads, ULDs or compartments.
Pallets with flowers, fruit or vegetables must not be covered with plastic foils.
Perishable cargo, refrigerated with wet ice or containing fluids or moisture which could leak (e.g. meat, fish or other sea foods - fresh, salted, smoked or frozen) shall be treated as "Wet Cargo" and shall be handled according to the respective regulations.
Care shall be taken when stacking perishable items so that lower layers of the stack are not damaged by the weight of the upper layers.
CARGO AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
Sita - Société Internationale de Télécommunications Aéronautiques: provides a range of IT solutions as well as infrastructure and communication services for the air transport industry
EDI - Electronic Data Interchange: This is the computer-to-computer exchange of business documents between companies. EDI replaces the faxing and mailing of paper documents.
UN/EDIFACT - United Nations Electronic Data Interchange For Administration, Commerce and Transport: The international EDI standard developed for United Nations.
Cargo IMP - Cargo Interchange Message Procedures: Cargo-IMP is the official message source for specifications concerning space allocation, air waybill, flight manifest, accounting, status, discrepancy, embargo, customs, CASS billing, and dangerous goods. The Cargo-IMP also includes encoding and decoding lists of all approved codes and abbreviations.
Cargo Community Systems (Cargonaut): A platform or space for cooperation and sharing of reliable air cargo information to all facilitators (forwarders, ground handlers, airlines and customs) of the supply chain.
WHAT IS TACT?
The Air Cargo Tariff” (TACT)- is an internationally recognized authoritative publication. It offers airlines, cargo agents and shippers a uniform reference source for air cargo rates, rules and regulations as well as the most comprehensive coverage of general rules.
According to TACT Air Freight = Chargeable Weight x Applicable Rate
Charges in Air Transportation
Valuation Charge: Additional insurance charge imposed on the shipper whose cargo has declared value that exceeds the amount covered under the carrier's limits of liability
Charges Collect (CC): The charges entered on the Air Waybill or shipment record for collection from the consignee against delivery of the shipment.
Charges Prepaid (PP): The charges entered on the Air Waybill for payment by the shipper.
Insurance Risk Charge: Surcharge collected at the airport and invoiced according to chargeable weight.
1% Banking Charge: Applied to the air freight and all of the surcharges quoted in currencies other than euros.
AIR Pricing (Factors Affecting Air Pricing)
Volumetric weight
Surcharges (fuel and security surcharges
An individual's continuous or frequent use of airlines service (customer may negotiate for better prices
Airline's need to ensure a filled cargo space or capacity utilization.
ALL ABOUT THE AIRWAY BILL
The air waybill is derived from the “Bill of Lading” used in maritime transport, and so assume the functions that a bill of lading. But the functions of a maritime bill of lading are not fully adapted to other transport modes due to the latter’s specifications. For example, the function of a maritime bill of lading as the document of title, which enables the transfer of title of the goods in transit, is of little or no importance in air transport, considering the very short time in practice when the goods actually remain under the control of the carrier.
For example in air transport, the air waybill is also often considered the insurance proof if the shipment is insured against transport risk.
In business, around 90% of all the air waybills are prepared by air cargo agents on behalf of the shipper and the carrier.
The air waybill is also always completed on the basis of a Shipper Letter of Instruction, which the sender must complete.
Air waybill originals
Original no. 1 - green
This is intended for the administration of the carrier (transporter). The airway bill serves as the accounting document for the issuing carrier and a documentary evidence of carrier’s and shipper’s signature to the contract of carriage.
Original no. 2 – pink
This accompanies the shipment and is intended for the consignee.
Original no. 3 - blue
This is intended for the shipper (sender). It serves as proof of receipt of the goods for shipment and documentary evidence of the contract of carriage between the carrier and the shipper.
Air Waybill Copies
Original airway bills are issued in quintuplicate which is meant for carrier, importer, shipper and additional copies (min 6 and a max 14). They are as follows;
- Copy no. 4 - yellow
This copy, marked "delivery receipt", accompanies the shipment to its final destination, to be signed by the consignee upon delivery, after which it is kept on file in the office of the delivering carrier to serve as:
a. Proof of delivery of the shipment in good order and condition to consignee;
b. Evidence of completion of the contract of carriage.
- Copy no. 5 - white
This copy, marked for "airport of destination", also accompanies the shipment to its final destination, for use in effecting clearance of the shipment through customs.
- Copy no. 6 - white
This copy, marked "for third carrier", is to be retained by the third carrier, if any, to serve as their traffic document.
- Copy no. 7 - white
This copy, marked "for second carrier", is retained by the second carrier, if any, to serve as their traffic document.
- Copy no. 8 - white
This copy, marked "for first carrier", is retained by the first carrier to serve as their traffic document.
- Copy no. 9 - white
This copy, marked "for agent", is retained by the issuing IATA cargo agent who issues the air waybill on the airline's behalf.
- Copies no. 10 – and more (up to no.14)
These are extra copies for use by any of the carriers, if needed.
Airway bill is issued by air carrier of goods on receipt of goods after completion of export customs formalities of the country. Shipper obtains airway bill once after handing over cargo to them. Since the cargo transit time is too less compared to sea shipment, a set of airway bill along with cargo transfer manifest (CTM) issued by IATA agent, is sent along with the cargo for immediate reference on transit and for import customs clearance at destination port by importer.
Once after arrival of cargo at destination, the importer or his cargo agent approaches the destination office of air carrier and collect airway bill and other required documents sent by shipper along with cargo for necessary documentation for import customs clearance procedures and other references. Importer may also collect copies of documents by courier or mail from shipper before arrival of goods.
Types of Air Waybills
Neutral Air Waybill (NAWB)
Any receipt issued by an international airline for goods and an evidence of the contract of carriage, but it is not a document of title to the goods.
The NAWB is the most important document issued by a carrier either directly or through its authorized agent. It is a non-negotiable transport document. It covers transport of cargo from airport to airport. By accepting a shipment an IATA cargo agent is acting on behalf of the carrier whose AWB is issued. AWBs have eleven digit numbers (used to make bookings, check the status of delivery, and track shipment.
The number consists of:
First 3 digits (airline prefix assigned by IATA, to airlines so from the prefix we know which airline has issued the document.
The serial number of 8 digits, the identification of the air waybill.
House Air Waybill (HAWB)
If a forwarder takes on the function of a carrier, an air waybill is issued in its own name, and is called Forwarder Bill of Lading or House Air Waybill.
However, note that a forwarder is normally more of an intermediary than a carrier.
Master Air Waybill (MAWB)
A Master Air Waybill (MAWB) is the regular airline bill of lading issued by the originating airline when more than one airline is involved with a shipment, or when a freight forwarder issues a House Air Waybill.
Functions of the Air Waybill
An air waybill is primarily proof of the air cargo contract. It is in fact the contract of carriage between the carrier and the shipper. Air waybill is a non-negotiable document. Negotiable means that the air waybill can be handed over or transferred in a certain manner e.g. proper endorsement to another person
Proof of receipt of goods for shipment
When the shipper delivers his goods for carriage, he expects to receive a receipt as proof that he has tendered the goods in a good order and condition.
Evidence of contract of carriage
The air waybill, once executed, serves as documentary evidence of the conclusion of a contract of carriage, of which the airline company and the consignee (green and pink) receive one original copy each.
Proof of insurance
If the shipment is "insured on waybill" against transport risk, then the air waybill also serves as a proof of insurance.
Basis for air cargo rate calculation
The air waybill serves as a basis for the calculation of cargo rates and the settlement thereof between the carrier and the shipper or consignee as well as between the companies involved in the transport.
FREEDOMS IN AIR TRANSPORTATION
There are 5 freedoms of the air, which are a set of commercial aviation rights granting a country's airlines the privilege to enter and land in another country's airspace. The most important are the first two freedoms.
First Freedom of the Air - the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, granted by one State to another State or States to fly across its territory without landing (also known as a First Freedom Right).
Second Freedom of the Air - the right or privilege, granted by one State to another State or States to land in its territory for non-traffic purposes (also known as a Second Freedom Right.
AIR CHARTER PARTY
Aircraft charter is the business of renting an entire aircraft (i.e., chartering) for private use over a period of time. It does not have a scheduled flight, time of departure or arrival but strictly controlled by the local and international aviation authorities..
There are several types of charter flights.
Private Charter - an individual rents an entire aircraft for use
Single Entity Charter- an individual or company contracts and pays for the operation of an entire airplane
Affinity Charter– An organisation renting aircraft for its members who pay their own fares
Public Charter - when a person or company contracts for the operation of an aircraft to and from a destination and then advertises and sells seats to members of the public, either directly or through a travel agent.
Special Event Tours Charter – Renting the aircraft for group sporting event, family holiday, birthday celebration etc
THE 1999 MONTREAL CONVENTION
Designed to be a single, universal treaty to govern airline liability around the world, the Montreal Convention 1999 (MC99) establishes airline liability in the case of death or injury to passengers, as well as in cases of delay, damage or loss of baggage and cargo.
It unifies all of the different international treaty regimes covering airline liability since 1929.
MC99 gives consumers better protection and compensation and facilitates faster air cargo shipments, while airlines enjoy greater certainty about the rules affecting their liability.
Shippers and those involved in the air cargo supply chain will benefit from the ability to make claims without the need for expensive and time consuming litigation.
They will also be able to replace paper documents of carriage, such as Air Waybills, with electronic versions, thus facilitating faster and more efficient trade.
LIKELY EXAMINABLE QUESTIONS
Discuss the relevance of both local and international air transport organisations
Discuss the conditions for a forwarder to be an IATA cargo agent with regards to the conferences
Describe the concept of consolidation, its services, merits and demerits
Discuss the functions of the Air cargo Agent with its regulatory structure
Give an account on the major commercial Aircraft types and cargo carrying capacities.
Examine five(5) major regional and (5)major international airports around the globe
Explain the three(3) traffic conferences, their cities and airport codes
Citing examples with diagrams, explain the hub and spoke concept
Enumerate and discuss relevant statutory measures for moving perishables and dangerous cargoes
Abbreviations to Know
AWB: Airway Bill
NAWB: Neutral Air Waybill
ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization
IATA: International Air Transport Association
CANSO: Civil Air Navigation Service Organization
ANC: Air Navigation Commission
ANSP: Air Navigation Service Providers
ACI: Airports Council International
AMHS: Aeronautical Message Handling System
AIP: Aeronautical Information Publication
Cargo IMP: Cargo Interchange Message Procedures
CASS: Cargo Accounts Settlement System
CAC: Cargo Agency Conference
CCSP: Certified Cargo Screening Program
CPG: CASS Policy Group
CPCMG: Cargo Procedures Conference Management Group
CTM: Cargo Transfer Manifest
EDI: Electronic Data Interchange
GCAA: Ghana Civil Aviation Authority
GACL: Ghana Airports Company Limited
GPS: Global Positioning System
IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency
ICHM: International Cargo Handling Manual
IFCC: IATA/FIATA Consultative Council
ULD: Unit Loading Device
UN/EDIFACT: United Nations Electronic Data Interchange For Administration, Commerce and Transport
SLI: Shippers' Letter of Instruction
SITA: Société Internationale de Télécommunications Aéronautiques:
TACT: The Air Charge Tarrif
TSA: Transport Security System Authority):
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